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The language of the Mass hints at its sacrificial nature, and its connection to sacrificial practices in ancient Israel. But the word "sacrifice" has come to have two misleading meanings in ordinary English: perhaps any costly gift, especially of time or effort; perhaps, the ritual killing of an animal as such a gift.
Such a term leaves utterly mysterious the effects of the Crucifixion; Jesus's choices about how he would die, and the fittingness of his death as a way for God to save us; His instructions for re-presenting it in the Eucharist; and all the details of the "ritual law" God gave through Moses to bind the Israelites to Him in love and prepare them for the Christ.
The aim of this course is to examine cases of sacrifice throughout Scripture that have been central sites of theological reflection, and so enrich and correct our understanding of sacrifice to unravel these problems. We will see how Jesus designed His death to give God a gift good enough for Him, in a way His people could understand immediately, and in a way all humans can understand by reflection on the natural signs involved in Israelite practices.
Course Outline:
1. Binding and Burning: Abraham
2. The First Passover
3. Tent, Temple, Throne, Atonement
4. New Passover, New Priesthood
5. At-one-ment Disputed in Tradition
This week we introduce the course and consider the first (in/)famous act of sacrifice in the Old Testament, which the New Testament authors treat as a type for the Crucifixion: the akedah or “binding” of Isaac.
Questions for discussion:
1. Hugh (the tutor) proposes that we can reconcile the problems raised by the akedah by treating it as a burnt offering, or olah. Did you have any questions about this solution?
2. Did you have any quibbles or concerns? Anything it needs to address but does not? Any objections of any kind?
3. In the readings suggested below are some alternative interpretations. Do you think any of these are sufficient, and so make the case in the lecture, redundant?
4. Do you think any of them add something important to the interpretation given in the lecture?
5. Do you have any questions left over?
Scripture: Genesis 22;
Compare with: Leviticus1; 22:18 Exod 29:38–42; 30:28; 40:7; Numbers 28:1-7. For earlier sacrifice narratives in Genesis: 12:1-8; 13:1-4, 14-18; 18:18-20.
Secondary Readings:
Hahn S and … (eds). The Ignatius Catholic Study Bible, “The Sacrifice of Isaac”, pp 86-87
Devorah Schoenfield’s overview of Talmudic typological attempts to explain the Akedah: Akedah: How Jews and Christians Explained Abraham's Faith - TheTorah.com
Levenson, J. D. (1993) The Death and Resurrection of the Beloved Son, Yale UP London. pp 3-5, 12-17; 201 The opening of Leve 210-219nson’s book on child sacrifice in Ancient Israel, and the opening of its chapter on the Jesus-Isaac parallel.
Levenson 1993, pp. A discussion of Paul’s identification of Jesus with Isaac, and his theological/polemical purposes in doing so.
Ulluci, D. (2011) “Contesting the Meaning of Animal Sacrifice” in D. J. Wright Knust and Z. Varhelyi (eds.) Ancient Mediterranean Sacrifice OUP Oxford; pp62-69 A good discussion of the role of gift-giving in animal sacrifice.
A. R. Rillera (2024) Lamb of the Free, Cascade Books, Eugene Oregon, pp30-35 an explanation of the burnt offering in the Levitical system.
This week we move ~500 years to the night of the Tenth Plague and consider the original Passover ritual, asking what God’s purposes in all its details might have been.
Questions for discussion:
1. Hugh (the tutor) proposes that the original Passover ritual is a composite burnt offering, purification, and covenant-sealing ritual. Did you have any questions about this solution?
2. Did you have any quibbles or concerns? Anything it needs to address but does not? Any objections of any kind?
3. In the readings suggested below are some alternative interpretations. Do you think any of these are sufficient, and so make the case in the lecture, redundant?
4. Do you think any of them add something important to the interpretation given in the lecture?
5. Do you have any questions left over?
Scripture: Exodus 12; 22; Genesis 15
Secondary Readings:
Pitre B. (DATE) Jesus and the Jewish Roots of the Eucharist Image: New York pp 48-58
Dennis T Olson, D. T., (2015) “Sacramentality in the Torah” in The Oxford Handbook of Sacramental Theology eds. H. Boersma and M. Levering OUP pp 26-32
Kristin Garroway, “The Origins of the Biblical Pesach” The Origins of the Biblical Pesach - TheTorah.com An overview of attempts to explain the Passover as an apotropaic, or warding, ritual.
Marty Lockshin, “Searching for the Meaning of the Passover Sacrifice” Searching for the Meaning of the Passover Sacrifice - TheTorah.com An overview of Talmudic attempts to explain details of the rite.
Rillera, A. R. (2024) Lamb of the Free, Cascade Books Oregon pp 41-59
Another 500 years forward, and a great Temple stands in a city conquered for God by a great king. At last the Israelites can practice the elaborate system of rituals mandated at Sinai, in their full glory…and gore. But what was it all for?
Questions for discussion:
1. Hugh (the tutor) proposes that moral psychology (praise, gratitude, penance, reparation, and commitment) cannot exhaust the meaning of Israelite sacrifices. Expiation is an objective reality which we understand analogically through cleaning, but which cleans impurity and, on occasion, sin. It is necessary for the actions involved in other sacrifices to be effective. Its power explains why some blood manipulations offer supernatural signs of covenantal union between God and humans. Do you have any questions about this interpretation?
2. Did you have any quibbles or concerns? Anything it needs to address but does not? Any objections of any kind?
3. In the readings suggested below are some alternative interpretations. Do you think any of these are sufficient, and so make the case in the lecture, redundant?
4. Do you think any of them add something important to the interpretation given in the lecture?
5. Do you have any questions left over?
6. Why do you think the author of Hebrews thinks the Levitical system cannot redeem us?
Scripture: Leviticus 1-7, 16-17; Isaiah 53:4-6; 2 Corinthians 5:16-21; Hebrews 8-10:1-18
Secondary Readings:
Gane, Roy E. 2022. 'Sacrifice and the Old Testament', St Andrews Encyclopaedia of Theology. Edited by Brendan N. Wolfe et al.Sacrifice and the Old Testament - St Andrews Encyclopaedia of Theology (really useful)
Korbanot: The Biblical Temple Sacrifices - A definitive guide to the animal sacrifices, meal and oil offerings, and wine libations - Chabad.org (a more concise summary but interprets without argument or engaging in the debate)
Olson, D. T., (2015) “Sacramentality in the Torah” in The Oxford Handbook of Sacramental Theology eds. H. Boersma and M. Levering OUP pp32-35
Christina Hayes, Introduction to the Hebrew Bible (Lecture 2) https://ruml.com/biblicalliteracy/pdf/Hayes-Kaufmann.pdf on Kaufmann’s explanation of the difference between monotheism and polytheism – and hence why Israelite rituals look like magic spells, but aren’t (?). Hayes’ whole lecture series is available on Youtube.
Jonathan Klawans, (2006) Purity, Sacrifice and the Temple OUP pp53-56, 62-73 Offers an attempt to explain sacrificial rituals in terms of their commonalities, using a totally different theory from the explicit purpose: as ‘imitatio dei’.
Gilders W. K. (2011) “Jewish Sacrifice: its Nature and Function (According to Philo).” in Jennifer Wright Knust & Zsuzanna Varhelyi Ancient Mediterranean Sacrifice OUP, pp94-103
Gane R, (2005) Cult and Character: Purification Offerings, Day of Atonement, and Theodicy Eisenbrauns Winona Lake IN; pp28-31, 37-42, 45-70, 90, 105, 142, 197, 213, 217-220, 230-235, 240-251, 316-317. This is the most detailed attempt to explain the meaning of the Day of Atonement ritual, within the wider context. The scan here prioritizes representing Gane’s conclusions over his arguments.
Jesus fulfills and recapitulates the entire Levitical system in the last months of his earthly life…and perhaps between then and his Second Coming. How did He make clear to His audience that His Last Supper, Passion and death were a New Passover? What are the implications for the purposes of the Eucharist in reuniting humans with God? And does the need for Christ’s work imply that sacrifices in the Old Testament did not achieve the goals God seemed to ordain them for?
Questions for discussion:
1. Hugh (the tutor) proposes that the Last Supper and Passion is Jesus’ equivalent of the first Passover He commanded through Moses; and the Eucharist is His equivalent of all the sacrifices eaten by laypeople, expiating sin and impurity, giving a gift fit for God, and binding Jew and Gentile to God in a new covenant. Meanwhile, Jesus expiates all the sin of humanity as our high priest in heaven. Finally, Jesus bears our sin in his body to Azazel and/or into death.
2. Did you have any quibbles or concerns? Anything it needs to address but does not? Any objections of any kind?
3. In the readings suggested (Levenson, Klawans, Rillera) are some alternative interpretations. Do you think any of these are sufficient, and so make the case in the lecture, redundant?
4. Do you think any of them add something important to the interpretation given in the lecture?
5. Now it’s time to talk about the liturgy! Are there aspects of your liturgical experience (particularly at the Eucharist) which you find now make more sense? Are there aspects which remain strange?
6. Do you have any questions left over?
Scripture: Luke 19:28-48; 22:1-30; 22:39-46; 23:26-49; John 1:29-34; 6; 19:17-37; Hebrews 8-10:1-18, 13:10-15; 1 Peter 3:18-20.
Secondary Readings:
Conlin R (2023) Summary and Review of Jesus and the Jewish Roots of the Eucharist by Brant Pitre – Prodigal Catholic A more convenient summary of some of the evidence presented in the extracts below.
Pitre B (2011) Jesus and the Jewish Roots of the Eucharist Doubleday pp59-76
Pitre B (2011) chapter 5, “The Bread of the Presence” This bears on how Jesus would have been able to communicate the doctrine of the Real Presence to His initial audience.
Pitre B (2011) chapter 6, “The Fourth Cup” This bears on the Blessing Cups as evidence Jesus conceived of/taught that His Passion was a New Passover
Hahn S and Mitch C J (202?) “When did Jesus Celebrate the Last Supper?” in Ignatius Catholic Study Bible: New Testament p188 This presents alternative views on the timing of the Last Supper and the Passion in connection with the Passover.
Levenson, J. D. (1993) The Death and Resurrection of the Beloved Son, Yale UP London pp3-5; pp200-209 An alternative perspective
Pimentel S (2008) Library : The Todah Sacrifice as Pattern for the Eucharist | Catholic Culture
Wright Knust J and Varhelyi Z (2011) “Introduction” in Ancient Mediterranean Sacrifice Jennifer Wright Knust & Zsuzanna Varhelyi OUP pp16-18 An alternative perspective
Klawans J (2006) Purity, Sacrifice and the Temple pp213-222 An alternative perspective
Rillera A R (2024) Lamb of the Free Cascade Books, Eugene Oregon p209, 221-233 An alternative (rather fast-paced!) perspective on Hebrews.
Cody Warta interviewed by Austin Suggs (2022) https://open.spotify.com/episode/0sY8awADjs7ol8hQ5VtxRo?si=MdX6uMu4RJmE4uYX2WUVhA Oxford PhD student Cody Warta discusses Old Testament sacrifice, the book of Hebrews, and how it supports Thomas Aquinas’ model of Jesus’ presence in the Eucharist.
Hahn S and Mitch C J (2024) “Christ and the “Spirits in Prison” in Ignatius Catholic Study Bible p2204 This is a discussion of the primary proof-text for the Harrowing of Hell in Scripture. It turns out that in 1 Enoch the leader of these spirits is none other than Azazel!
An account of Christ’s work which functions by taking Old Testament sacrifices as efficacious in their own terms, then explaining how Jesus’ fulfils them to amplify their power, may seem outlandish. But it only has to work better than the rivals the history of theology has given us. Let’s consider these to see if offerings, covenant-sealings and expiations are an improvement.
Questions for discussion:
1. Did the lecture (or footnotes in the script, if you were curious) raise any initial questions for you?
2. Perhaps you have long appealed to a traditional theory of the atonement to understand or explain how Christ saves you.
3. Do you think it was mischaracterised?
4. Are there replies to Hugh’s objections that should be aired?
5. Does it have advantages over the sacrificial model?
6. Do you have in mind any Biblical material you think other theories of the atonement are needed to explain/account for?
7. What impact, if any, do you think a particular understanding of the atonement might have on someone’s spiritual life? Apart from the question of losing one’s faith because one can’t believe what one doesn’t understand at all, how important is it to understand how Jesus saves?
8. Hugh emphasises that a theory of the atonement needs to explain the need for repentance and faith, and the role of the sacraments. Does a theory of the atonement need to explain the possibility of salvation through “extraordinary grace” (i.e. not having explicit faith in Christ; not participating in the sacraments)? How do different models fare there?
9. Do you have any questions left over?
Readings:
Andrew Remington Rillera, Lamb of the Free Cascade Books, Eugene Oregon, pp 1-7;
Rillera 2024 pp 9-26 These sections contain Rillera’s explanation of how Old Testament sacrifices were not penal substitutions.
Finlan S (2005) Problems with Atonement Liturgical Press Collegeville MN, 11-39 A discussion of changing interpretations of ritual over time, and representing the “model” I have proposed.
Tanner K (2010) Christ the Key CUP 246-273 A “post-liberal” theologian rehearses criticisms of Patristic, Medieval and Reformation atonement theories in contemporary academic theology
Nikolas Breiner (2018) “Punishment and Satisfaction in Aquinas’ Account of the Atonement: A Reply to Stump” in Faith and Philosophy 35 (2): 237-256 https://place.asburyseminary.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2638&context=faithandphilosophy This has a helpfully brief presentation of Stump’s neo-exemplarist interpretation of Thomas, and a challenge to that interpretation.
We would really appreciate it if you could take a few minutes to provide us with feedback on your experience with our course. Please complete an evaluation form here:
Evaluation form - Sacrifice a Gift for God
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WEEK 1
WEEK 2
WEEK 3
Week 4
Week 5
Hugh is Head of Philosophy and Theology at Eltham College, and has a PhD in Philosophy of Religion from the University of Cambridge. He is the writer and producer of the "PhilTh" podcast, which covers central topics in philosophy and theology.
